This post is a part of the 2024 Selected Papers of the Consortium on the Revolutionary Era, which were edited and compiled by members of the CRE’s board alongside editors at Age of Revolutions.

By Michał Rastaszański

French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars had a significant impact on the United States. Even the American-British War of 1812-1814 (or 1815) is sometimes considered one of the peripheral theaters of this conflict.[1] Americans, sometimes active participants and at other times passive observers, sought to draw lessons from the events unfolding in Europe. One example of reflection on the Napoleonic Wars is found in the publications of William Duane – a lieutenant-colonel and journalist. He wrote a series of works dedicated to military matters: two volumes of The American Military Library Or, Compendium of the Modern Tactics[2] in 1809, A Military Dictionary, or, Explanation of the several systems of discipline of different kinds of Troops Infantry, Artillery, and Cavalry[3] in 1810, and finally, two regulations, A hand book for infantry[4] and A handbook for riflemen.[5]

The objective of this paper is to examine the portrayal and reception of the Napoleonic Wars in Duane’s military works. The issue of the American military reception of the Napoleonic Wars was primarily addressed by Michael Bonura in his superb book Under the Shadow of Napoleon. Bonura mainly focused on the later period and Duane received little attention, mainly in the context of describing his regulations during the War of 1812. Duane is understudied compared to his essential roles during presidency of Jefferson and Madison. As a key figure in the popularization of French military though, he is worthy of broader analysis.[6] What’s more, his works allow us to reveal a certain professional military knowledge that reached American military circles. Secondly, they also enables us to capture the author’s interpretation of the conflict and the development of the art of war in Europe, as he was both an officer and a significant political figure in America.

William Duane (1760-1835) was born in Great Britain and worked as a journalist. He also served as a soldier in the East India Company. During his time in London, he gained recognition as a supporter of the Irish national movement and the French Revolution. He arrived in the United States in 1796 and became a journalist actively supporting the Republicans. His political involvement in Jefferson’s electoral campaign facilitated his rise in the military ranks. Previously, he had held an officer’s position in the American militia, with his new appointment, he became a lieutenant colonel in the regular army, serving there from 1808 onward in the Riflemen Regiment.[7]

Between 1807 and 1812, William Duane was one of the few individuals who undertook the publication of numerous works on military matters. His first published work was The American Military Library. Duane was a staunch advocate of defense based on the militia and emphasized this frequently. The knowledge from this book was intended especially for the officers of this formation. Library was essentially a general military textbook discussing the art of war at the organizational, tactical and strategic levels. Duane’s Library was also the first American book dedicated to the organization of the  general staff. One copy was sent as a gift to Thomas Jefferson. In a letter to the president, Duane explained his motivation: “it is my purpose to collect all that is to be had in the best books & to give them such a form as the first number exhibits, which may lead judicious men to enquire and think and inform those who are uninformed.” Despite his apparent modesty, Duane had ambitions of becoming a great reformer of the American military based on French patterns. To write his book he borrowed many of them from Henry Dearborn’s War Office. In the letter, he especially praised Guibert’s “invaluable but prolix” work. He also announced the necessity of translating the French regulations from 1791, which should update the outdated Steuben’s blue book.[8]

In 1807 The Chesapeake–Leopard affair reignited American debate on defense and policy.  According to Duane, a professional military was a tool of absolutism, and therefore defense should primarily rely on the militia. He drew inspiration from the French levée en masse, which he combined with the idea of the American militia. As he wrote in his dictionary, under the entry, “Militia:” “the French system of conscription was borrowed from America, who borrowed it from the Romans.” Duane, realizing that the conflict in Europe could soon affect America, noted numerous deficiencies in the defense of the republic. In his works, he was primarily concerned with land defense. Even in an article in the “Aurora” he stated that a fleet for the United States would be unprofitable if it were only to be used for defense (Duane did not believe that the fight for control of the seas was in America’s interest). Citing statistics, he argued that the British fleet cost society enormous resources, which, in his opinion, was a waste of money. He described the Franco-British struggles as a rivalry for maritime glory, which he deemed entirely unnecessary from the perspective of both societies. He downplayed the significance of the Battle of the Nile and even the Battle of Trafalgar, provocatively claiming that Nelson’s fleet failed to save Europe from conquest.[9]

Duane’s first work was “The American Military Library,” a small compendium of knowledge from the Napoleonic era. Although Duane favored militia, This work was also intended for the regular army. Duane justified the need for the publication by stating that, in comparison to the European armies of the Napoleonic era, the tactics of the American Revolution would not work in contemporary times. He stated that: “The tactics of our revolution would not answer in the present times. There is no discipline; there is even no system.” In his opinion, instead of Profiting by the March of Science, he argued, the U.S. opted for instructions from the worst military solutions in Europe. Duane’s work introduced the American consciousness to the writings of the French theorist Antoine-Henri Jomini. Additionally, it was the first American publication and translation of the French regulation from 1791. The creation of “The American Military Library” was supported by the U.S. Department of War, which was interested in changes in the art of war.[10]

Although he popularized Jomini, Duane was not the only American officer of that period who was familiar with his thought. During the War of 1812, General (initially Colonel) Winfield Scott, an officer with a strong inclination towards the development and professionalization of the American army, brought with him “Traité de grandes opérations militaires.” Scott’s military regulations were heavily inspired by the French art of war, in which he was notably interested. He read “Manuel General du Service” wrote by the revolutionary General Thiebualt. It is worth noting that after War of 1812, Jomini enjoyed popularity among the commanders of the United States Army for a long time. His teachings continued to influence officers who fought in the Mexican-American War and the Civil War.[11]

An example of Duane’s high regard for French art of war can be found in the historical list of battles in the dictionary. The compilation opens with mythical conflicts such as the War of the Seven Against Thebes and the Siege of Troy, concluding with the battles of Friedland and Eylau. Some entries were accompanied by additional commentary. A particular distinction was awarded to Austerlitz, described as “one of the most profound in the history of tactics, and the most brilliant in the annals of victory.” Another highlighted battle of the Napoleonic era was Marengo, also designated as “one of the most brilliant in history, and important in its consequences.” When describing Friedland, its significance equals that of Jemappes, Fleurus, Nordlingen, Zurich, Marengo, Jena, and Austerlitz.[12]

Napoleon is also cited multiple times. Sometimes, it is in the context of explaining other entries, such as in the entry “Animate” where Duane described the need for commanders to provide their own examples of courage. He cited examples of Julius Caesar’s fearless conduct in the Battle of Dyrrhachium and Napoleon personally leading grenadiers in the Battle of Lodi. This comparison between the two figures also appeared in “The American Military Library,” where in the chapter on the history of war and tactics, it was even stated that Napoleon surpassed Caesar in the application of rapid forced marches and the audacity of attacks. In the analyzed works, Napoleon is portrayed positively, with the focus on his military abilities. It is important to reiterate that Duane was a supporter of the Republican Party. Its leader, Jefferson, considered Bonaparte a traitor to revolutionary ideals and a tyrant. Nevertheless, due to the threat of another war with Great Britain, Republicans preferred to support the French Empire. Duane shared this ambivalent view, as he stated in the Aurora newspaper in 1807 that, although Bonaparte might not be deserving of respect, everyone should be a supporter of his triumph.[13]

The Napoleonic Wars constituted a significant element of analysis in The American Military Library, where various engagements were examined as examples of a new tactics and strategy. Contemplating a new organizational system for the United States Army, the author asserted that the French victories from 1792-1806 clearly demonstrated the superiority of the new army organization, including the division into corps. According to The American Military Library, these corps, acting like small armies, were believed to have significantly contributed to the victories at Eylau and Friedland. In contrast to to rapid French moves, Duane expressed negative opinions about Napoleon’s adversaries, particularly the Prussian commanders, stating that their maneuvering system, which had brought them success during the Seven Years’ War, was tedious, sluggish, tiresome compared to the French way of fighting. In his analysis, Duane scrutinized the skills of Bonaparte and his Marshals who led the army without clinging desperately to supply lines, as was the practice of Napoleon’s adversaries. The American Military Library noted about Napoleon: “Feeling his rear secure, his advances are rapid, because he forces the vanquished to furnish his supplies, and to render his magazines almost portable.” According to Duane, French armies moved much faster than their adversaries, appearing “like lightning over the Rhine and the Danube.” Combined with Napoleon’s genius, this factor heavily contributed to victorious battles at Ulm and Austerlitz. Duane’s assessment was accurate. Indeed, the emperor, influenced by the French military theorist Guibert, advocated for dynamic military maneuver and a mobile army, with his soldiers being renowned for marching exceptionally quickly. The effectiveness of the Grand Army’s swift march was attributed to the limitation of supply trains, training soldiers in long marches, and the assumption that war sustained itself – usually at the expense of the occupied territories.[14]

In his work “The American Military Library,” Duane advocated for the widespread use of light infantry. Duane held the rank of lieutenant colonel in the Riflemen Regiment, which undoubtedly affected his increased interest in this type of formation. He considered it to be national, an invention of the American Revolution that matched the character of the citizens of the young Republic. In his view, European nations imitated and developed American solutions. Duane warned his readers about the danger of neglecting certain branches of the military, which, in his opinion, would be essential for the defense of the republic in the face of the imminent war:

European nations being our imitators in this branch of military force, renders it necessary in America to pay the more attention thereto, because should a war arise on our shores, we shall be opposed by the weapons which we have ourselves invented. It is upon rifle corps and horse or flying artillery, artillerie legere, that we shall have to rely principally in conducting war, because these are the means best suited to the nature of our country.[15]

Undoubtedly, the American theater of operations in 18th century significantly influenced the experience and development of the doctrine of light infantry. An example of the impact on European wars is the establishment of the British Experimental Rifle Corps (1800), which indeed drew from the American experiences of its commander, John Moore. For Duane, it was the American Revolution that was to serve as an example for others, Despite significant developments in light infantry having also occurred during the French Revolution. The most innovative use of light infantry were the tirailleurs, utilized to support the regular infantry, primarily, to support column attacks.[16]

Duane also heavily emphasized necessity of implementing horse artillery, stating that it had “become indispensable in all armies.” Among its many advantages, he mentioned the ability to dynamically accompany cavalry, the capacity for unexpected attacks, the capability for a swift assault on the enemy from the flank or even from the rear. Furthermore, he observed that compared to foot artillery, horse artillery did not impede the marching pace of infantry. The Light Artillery Regiment was established during the period when the first volume of the American Military Library was published. This regiment was intended to be horse artillery equipped with 6-pound cannons featuring French carriages and caissons based on Gribeauval’s system. However, due to a lack of funds to maintain the unit, the entire regiment was disbanded in 1809, and the soldiers were reassigned to serve as infantry. Shortly before the outbreak of War of 1812, they were rearmed with cannons, but American artillerymen fought in a static manner of field artillery and did not employ new European tactics. It also couldn’t be utilized in the Napoleonic manner due to the difficult terrain on the areas where the war was fought. As a result, a significant difference between wars fought in Europe and the War of 1812 was the almost complete absence of the use of horse artillery.[17]

Beyond the strategy and tactics, Duane devoted a significant portion of his reflections to discipline and morale. Utilizing excerpts from the dictionary authored by the British officer Charles James, he emphasized that “as health is to the natural body, so is a sound military constitution to the military one; and as exercise is to the first, so is discipline to the last. Bravery will perchance gain a battle; but every one knows that by discipline alone the long disputed prize of a war can be ultimately obtained.” British authors praised Prussian discipline as an example; however, Duane modified and expanded James’s Entry explaining that the times of Prussia had recently passed, likely suggesting the recent defeats of the Prussian state against Napoleonic France.[18]

It is important to note that until 1812, corporal punishment was still in use in the regular U.S. Army. This was one of the reasons why citizens were reluctant to serve in the army. Although corporal punishment was suspended on the eve of the War of 1812 to encourage citizens to enlist, flogging was reintroduced into military regulations in the U.S. in 1833 and finally abolished during the American Civil War in 1861.[19] Duane opposed of the corporal punishment.  In his later reflections on discipline, he expressed strong condemnation for everyone who used it, writing that “the barbarous and self-defeating punishment or whipping remains a disgrace to the British code, and we lament to say to the American also.” Duane believed that corporal punishment was incongruent with the republican society of America. He saw the present European Wars as a clash of two approaches on the military:

It is sometimes said that discipline cannot be enforced without it; all Europe conquered at this moment, by an army in which even blows are not permitted, is a melancholy lesson contrasted with the brutal discipline of the cane and other ignominious practices, in the armies of Prussia, Austria, Russia, and England.[20]

In the years 1790-1791, the French formally abandoned corporal and degrading punishments. This was linked to revolutionary ideology and the concept of citizenship in the new army. The creation of new structures was accompanied by the replacement of the old officer corps, of which two-thirds either fled or were expelled from the military. The old discipline was associated with the ancien régime. There were even opinions that strict discipline did not suit the French nation.[21] Above all, French highlighted the importance of morale and the dignity of the soldier. According to Duane, who observed Napoleon’s struggles against his enemies, corporal punishments had a detrimental impact on the morale of the armies facing him. Therefore, the army of the ancien régime inevitably had to lose in a confrontation with the Citizen army. An example of this view can be found in his statement from the dictionary, where he expressed criticism of the use of a rattan, a cane with which a sergeant would beat disobedient soldiers during training. Such disciplinary measures were employed in various armies, including the British, Austrian, and Prussian, but the latter two abandoned them after defeats against Napoleonic France. As Duane wrote when describing the past state of affairs: “the Austrian discipline was thus conducted, till they have been beaten out of their manhood and self-respect. The Prussians abolished this barbarous custom after the battle of Jena.”[22]

Conclusion

Duane published numerous works but did not achieve significant military fame. During the War of 1812, he received the rank of Adjutant General of the Fourth Military District, although he did not participate in the fighting. The culmination of his military interests in Europe was the publication of regulations in 1812-1813 (A Hand Book for Infantry, A Handbook for Riflemen) based on French tactics, which, due to his political connections, was adopted by the army as binding, displacing the criticized work of Alexander Smyth from 1812, who also based his work on French solutions. Before the changes introduced by Smyth and Duane, Americans relied on old Steuben’s regulations introduced during the American Revolution based on the limited autonomy of commanding officers and strict subordination to the commander. Using French patterns, Smyth and Duane relied on the revolutionary regulation of 1791, seeing the advantage in flexibility, as it used both line and column formations, depending on the terrain and situation. Additionally, it gave lower-level commanders greater freedom in choosing tactics. In the intentions of the authors, the mobilized masses of the militia, which Duane compared to the levée en masse, could replicate French successes of the column attacks. Duane, convinced of the importance of his writings, stated in a letter to Jefferson that:

such are the works that are wanted throughout the country; they disrobe military subjects of the mystery in which ignorance and cunning have involved them; I should publish a hand book for cavalry and another for Artillery upon the same principles, but my funds do not admit it; and I presume since I have been considered in the opposition, it would not be consistent with affairs of state to give the writings of a suspected heretic in politics any countenance in war.[23]

Duane’s regulations had numerous editions. The title page already indicated the French inspirations of the author with a quote from Lazare Carnot about the necessity of maintaining strict discipline, which, as observed, was a recurring motif in Duane’s works. The quotation was borrowed from the De la défense des places fortes, ouvrage composé par ordre de sa majesté a work commissioned by Napoleon to Carnot concerning fortifications. This once again shows Duane’s intellectual network of military interests.[24]

Despite great aspirations and political support, the new regulation received heavy criticism. American officers criticized the publication for its many shortcomings and flaws that hindered systematic soldier training. J. Kimball criticized the work, stating that the regulation was primarily too short and not detailed enough (Smyth’s regulation was about 300 pages, Duane’s slightly over 100. The original from which both drew was 420 pages). On the other hand, Michael Bonura, in a relatively recent publication, presented a completely opposite view, emphasizing the benefits of a shortened and simpler manual that facilitated learning. Difficulties arose in part from its French origin. As Bonura accurately stated, the regulation was too French for federalist officers and not French enough for republican officers. It also seems that the problem lay not so much in the quality of the manual but in the timing of its introduction. Radical changes, such as adopting entirely new concepts on the eve of war, and subsequent changes during the ongoing invasion, had little chance of success from the start. However, it does not change the fact that Duane’s regulation was popular in militia units, which, due to their lack of training, benefited from its simplicity. Despite the clear desire to leverage the experiences of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, the adoption of new solutions proved challenging for Americans. Nevertheless, they continued their efforts to assimilate the French regulations. After the war, General Winfield Scott, in particular, dedicated himself to this cause. His interest in French concepts culminated in the publication of the work “Infantry Tactics; or, Rules for the Exercise and Manoeuvres of the Infantry of the U. S. Army” in 1825.[25]

---

Michał Rastaszański is a Ph.D. student at the University of Warsaw. His dissertation, titled “How to Defend the Republic? Debates Over Military Reforms in the United States and the Commonwealth in the Late 18th Century,” examines military reforms and their relation to republicanism.

Title Image: An 1802 portrait of William Duane. Source: Wikimedia Commons.

Endnotes:

[1] A. Mikaberidze, The Napoleonic Wars. A Global History, New York 2020, p. 541.

[2] W. Duane, The American Military Library Or, Compendium of the Modern Tactics: Embracing the Discipline, Manoeuvres, and Duties of Every Species of Troops. Infantry, Rifle Corps, Cavalry, Artillery of Position, and Horse Artillery; a Treatise on Defensive Works in the Field, the Exercise in Sea Coast Batteries, and Regular Fortifications. Adapted to the Use of the Militia of the United States; to Whom it is Respectfully Dedicated (The American Military Library; Or, Compendium of the Modern Tactics: Embracing the Discipline, Manoeuvres, and Duties of Every Species of Troops. Infantry, Rifle Corps, Cavalry, Artillery of Position, and Horse Artillery; a Treatise on Defensive Works in the Field, the Exercise in Sea Coast Batteries, and Regular Fortifications. Adapted to the Use of the Militia of the United States; to Whom it is Respectfully Dedicated) . vol. 1-2., Philadelphia 1809.

[3] W. Duane, A military dictionary, or, Explanation of the several systems of discipline of different kinds of troops infantry, artillery, and cavalry: the principles of fortification, and all the modern improvements in the science of tactics: comprising the pocket gunner, or little bombadier, the military regulations of the United States: the weights, measures, and monies of all nations: the technical terms and phrases of the art of war in the French language: particularly adapted to the use of the military institutions of the United States, Philadelphia 1810.

[4] W. Duane, A Hand Book for Infantry: Containing The First Principles of Military Discipline Founded of Rational Method: Intended to Explain in a Familiar and Practical Manner, For the Use of the Military Force of The United States, the modern iprovements in the Discipline and Movement of Armies, Philadelphia 1813.

[5] W. Duane, A handbook for riflemen: containing the first principles of military discipline, founded on rational method; intended to explain in a familiar and practical manner, the discipline and duties of rifle corps: conformable to the system established for the United Stated military force, and the latest improvements in the modern art of war, Philadelphia 1812.

[6] Michael A. Bonura, Under the Shadow of Napoleon French Influence on the American Way of Warfare from the War of 1812 to the Outbreak of WWII, New York, London 2012, p. 46-50; D. E. Graves, From Steuben to Scott: The Adoption of French Infantry Tactics by the United States Army, “The War of 1812 Magazine” 1807-1816, 2016 no; 26,  p. 1-16. https://www.napoleon-series.org/military-info/Warof1812/2016/Issue26/STEUBEN.pdf,

[7] The Encyclopedia of the War of 1812: A Political, Social, and Military History, ed. S. Tucker, vol. 1, Santa Barbara, Denver, Colorado 2012, p. 204-205.

[8] “To Thomas Jefferson from William Duane, 5 December 1807,”, Founders Online, National Archives; https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-6915; Original source: Library of Congress; Papers of Thomas Jefferson;  D. E. Graves, From Steuben to Scott: The Adoption of French Infantry Tactics by the United States Army, “The War of 1812 Magazine” 1807-1816, 2016 nr 26, p. 3-4; https://www.napoleon-series.org/military-info/Warof1812/2016/Issue26/STEUBEN.pdf;

[9]  L. D. Cress, The Army and Militia in American Society to the War of 1812, Chapel Hill 1982, p. 164-165.; W. Duane, Politics for American Farmers, Being a Series of Tracts Exhibiting The Blessings of Free Government, as it is administered in the United States Compared with the Boasted Stupendous Fabric of British Monarchy, Washington 1807, p. 12; W. Duane, Military Dictionary…, p. 439.

[10]Duane , The American Military Library, p. i; D. E. Graves, op. cit., p. 3-4; D. Duane, Military Dictionary… p. vi.

[11] J. W. Pohl, The Influence of Antoine Henri de Jomini on Winfield Scott’s Campaign in the Mexican War “The Southwestern Historical Quarterly” 1973, vol. 77, no 1, p. 85-88.

[12]  D. Duane, Military Dictionary…, p. 51.

[13] Ibid., s. 27; D. Duane, The American Military Library vol 1 p. 26; B. Perkins, Prologue to War. England and the United States 1805 – 1812, London 1961, p. 62-63.

[14]  D. Duane, The American Military Library, vol.1, p. 81, 131; R. Bielecki, Wielka Armia, Warszawa 1995, p. 275.

[15]  D. Duane, The American Military Library, vol. 2, p. 5.

[16]  J. E. Jr. Owen, The Influence of Warfare in Colonial America: On the Development of British Light Infantry „Army History” , 1998, nr. 44, s. 20-30; N. L. York, Pennsylvania Rifle: Revolutionary Weapon in a Conventional War?, “The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography” 1979, vol. 103, no. 3, p. 302-309; J. A. Lynn, The Bayonets of the Republic: Motivation and Tactics in the Army of Revolutionary France, 1791-94, Urbana 1984, p. 274-276.

[17]  W. Duane, The American Military Library … vol. 2, p. 254. ; B. L. Dastrup, King of Battle: A Branch History of the U.S. Army’s Field Artillery, Fort Monroe 1992, p. 47-51.

[18]  W. Duane, A Military Dictionary…, p. 122;  The same entry in the british dictionary: C. James, ,A new and enlarged military dictionary, or, Alphabetical explanation of technical terms: containing, among other matter, a succinct account of the different systems of fortification, tactics, &c.: also the various French phrases and words that have an immediate, or relative, connection with the British service, or may tend to give general information on military subjects in either language, London 1802; unpaginated book; entry “military discipline.”

[19]  An Act Establishing Rules and Articles for the Government of the Armies of the United States, Albany 1812, s. 94;  The Oxford Companion to American Military History, red. F. Anderson, E. Lynn, J. T. Glatthaar, R. H. Spector, Oxford 1999, p. 359.

[20]  W. Duane, A military dictionary… p. 556-557.

[21]  D. Faszcza, M. N. Faszcza, Dyscyplina w armiach europejskich od antyku do 1914 roku, Oświęcim 2018, s. 172-173;  L. Kania, Sądy wojskowe w armii Księstwa Warszawskiego: prawo, struktury, praktyka; “Studia Lubuskie, 2011, no 7, p. 26.

[22]  W. Duane, A military dictionary… p. 568.

[23]  The Encyclopedia of the War of 1812…, p. 203-204; D. Graves,. op. cit., p. 1-6;   W. Duane, A Military Dictionary…, s. vi; “William Duane to Thomas Jefferson, 17 July 1812,” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/03-05-02-0199. [Original source: The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, Retirement Series, vol. 5, 1 May 1812 to 10 March 1813, ed. J. Jefferson Looney. Princeton 2008, p. 254–257.]

[24] W. Duane, A Hand Book for Infantry: Containing the First Principles of Military, 1814, p.. iii; Lazare Carnot, De la defense des places fortes, ouvrage compose par ordre de sa majesté, Paris 1811, p. 5; E. Welvert, Les Révolutionnaires après La Révolution. Carnot “Revue Historique”, 1905, t. 89, p. 316-331.

[25]  J. Kimball, Battle of Chippawa: Infantry Tactics in the War of 1812 “Military Affairs, 1967 vol 31 no 4, p. 170-172, Règlement concernant l’exercice et les manœuvres de l’infanterie, Paris 1791; Michael A. Bonura, Under the Shadow of Napoleon French Influence on the American Way of Warfare from the War of 1812 to the Outbreak of WWII, New York, London 2012, s. 46-47; D. Graves, op. cit. p. 11.